Damietta translations

 

Peter Hill

  

The Damietta Circle was the first movement to translate into Arabic works from the European Enlightenment. Many of the extant manuscripts are now digitised, as are many of the source texts. I have included links to these where available. For further details, see the secondary scholarship listed below. Note that this list updates the list provided in Appendix 1 of my article ‘The First Arabic Translations of Enlightenment Literature’ (Intellectual History Review, 2015).

 

A.    Works with extant mss.

B.    Works without extant mss but more than one reference.

            C. Works not extant and with only a single reference.

 

            A. Extant works

 

            A. 1. Eugenios Voulgaris, Hekatontaetēris tōn apo Christou Sōtēros enanthrōpēsantos : hē prōtē kata chronikēn proodon en epitomē ektetheʿĪsā (The First Hundred Years After the Incarnation of Christ the Redeemer. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hertel, 1805). Google Books.

            Arabic title: Kitāb taʾrīkh al-māʾiyat sana al-ūlā min tajassud al-masīḥ al-mukhalliṣ (The First Hundred Years After the Incarnation of Christ the Redeemer). Translated by ʿIsā Petro, January 1817. (Cheikho/Khalifé no. 43; Vollers no. 1069).

Copies:

1. Bibliothèque Orientale, Université Saint-Joseph, Beirut: no. 43. Copied in 1825 by Jibrāʾīl Mūsā Maydānī, Orthodox of Damascus (Cheikho/ Khalifé no. 43). HMML: USJ 00043

2. Library of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate in Damascus: no. 201. Copied by Ibrāhīm Ḥannā Sarrūf from a copy in the hand of the translator, 1851. (Jubara 201; cf. Cheikho/Khalifé no. 43, Maʿlūf , “ʿĪsā Bitrū,”, 3: 555 – work no. 3). HMML: MARI 00201.

3. Second copy in the library of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate in Damascus: no. 389. Copied by Mīkhāʾīl b. Khalīlallāh Wīrdī in 1819. From the collection of Patriarch Ighnātiyus IV. (Jubāra no. 389).

4. Library of the College of the Three Hierarchs, Beirut (Cheikho/Khalife no. 43; Graf, Geschichte, III: 160).

5. Leipzig University Library: no. 1069. Catalogue description: ‘Translated by the priest ʿĪsā Petro of Jerusalem for his “spiritual son” Jirjis Shaḥḥāda Ṣabbāgh al-Dimashqī in 1817’. Dated 25 August 1817. (Vollers no. 1069). Qalamos.

6. National Library of Israel, dated 1825. NLI ms AP Ar. 98.

7. Copy in library of Dayr al-Mukhallis, Joun, no. OBS 1831. Catalogue.

8. Copy in Princeton University Library, copied 17 February 1853 by Ḥannā ibn al-Khūrī Īlyās al-Khur̄ī Bināyūt al-Khūrī ʻAwdah al-Talḥamī (leaf 87b). Islamic Manuscripts, Third Series, no. 828.

 

 

Copies attested but not now findable:

–                   1. Copy in collection of Constantin Anṭākī, Greek Orthodox notable of Aleppo (Fihris no. 1122).

–                   2. Copy in collection of Zakhariyyā Ḥamawī, Greek Orthodox priest of Aleppo (Fihris no. 1122).

 

            A. 2. Benjamin Martin, Philosophical Grammar (London, 1735). Google Books. Arabic title: Taḥrir ṣarf al-ʿulūm al-falsafiyya li-l-muʿallim Binyāmīn al-injlīzī al-mukannā Martīnūs ʿalā sabīl al-suʾāl wa-l-jawāb (Grammar of the Philosophical Sciences by the teacher Binyamin Martinus the Englishman, in the form of questions and answers).

            Translated into Arabic (1809) by ʿĪsā Petro, from the Greek version, with extensive notes, of Archimandrite Anthimos Gazēs, Grammatikē tōn philosophikōn epistēmōn (Vienna: Franz Antonio Schraimbl, 1799. (Cheikho 55 and 160, see also Asselin (“Lettre,” 114-5). ECHO, European Cultural Heritage Online [website currently down]: Volume 1, Volume 2.

Copies:

1. Text volume, including Gazis’s notes. Fondation Georges et Mathilde Salem, Aleppo (formerly Sbath ms no. 1307). Translated in 1809, copy made in 1816 [ms says, in error, 1716]. Marginal note by Butrus ‘Anhuri. HMML: GAMS 01307.

2. Illustrations volume. Dated February 1810. Bibliotheca Alexandrina, ms no. 1449. (See Reichmuth, ‘Mündlicher und literarischer Wissentransfer’.)

 

Copies attested but not now findable:

1. Copy in the library of Murād Bey al-Bārūdī, examined by Louis Cheikho. Cheikho confusingly lists this under both Bāsīlī Fakhr (160) and ʿĪsā Petro (55), suggesting that each was responsible for the translation. However, under ʿĪsā Petro he appears to quote from the original introduction: ‘ʿarrabahu al-qass ʿĪsā li-l-arkhūn lūghūthātī al-kursī al-Anṭākī Basil Fakhr’, suggesting that ʿĪsā was responsible (this also agrees with Sbath’s copy, below).

      2. Copy in the collection of Constantin Anṭākī, Greek Orthodox notable of Aleppo (Fihris no. 1123).

            3. Copy in the collection of Louis Fāris, Maronite merchant of Aleppo (Fihris no. 1123).

      4. Copy in the collection of Elias Khayyāṭ, Armenian Catholic merchant of Aleppo (Fihris no. 1123).

      5. Copy in the collection of ʿAbdallāh Sāʾigh, Greek Catholic merchant of Aleppo (Fihris no. 1123).

 

A.2.b. Perhaps the same as above, perhaps related. Silsilat ḥawāshī matn taḥrīr ṣarf al-ʽulūm al-falsafīyah.

Copies: 1. In library of Dayr al-Mukhallis, Joun. No. OBS1880 [REF??]

 

            A. 3. Jean-François Marmontel, Bélisaire (Belisarius. 1767). Google Books. Arabic title:  Kitāb Fālīṣāriyūs or Tārikh Balīzāriyūs.

            Arabic translation by ʿĪsā Petro, before 1812 (extant copy dated 1812). sThe source was a Greek version, probably Polyzōēs Lampanitziōtēs’s translation Ēthikē historia Belissariu Archistratēgu tu Meualu Ioistinianon Autokratos Rōmaiōn (Vienna: Baumeister, 1783).

Copies: Bibliothèque Nationale de France: ms Arabe 3922. Copy dated 1812. Gallica.

 

            A. 4. François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon, Les avantures de Télémaque (The Adventures of Telemachus. 1699). Google Books. Arabic title: Muṣādafāt Tīlīmākūs ibn Ūlīsah (What Happened to Telemachus, Son of Ulysse). Partial translation, Books 1 to 12.

            According to a marginal note (p. 1) the source was an Italian translation (there were several by the 1810s). Translated by Bāsīlī Fakhr with the assistance of Giovanni Lavagitti/Lavagetti), by 1813.  Manuscript note, p. 4, claims only this ‘first volume’ was translated.

Copy: Bibliothèque Orientale, Université Saint-Joseph, Beirut: no. 1512. Copied by ʿĪsā Petro in 1813. Dedication from Bāsīlī Fakhr to Frédéric Pisani, June 1818. (Cheikho/Khalifé no. 1512). HMML: USJ01512.

 

            A. 5. Charles Rollin, Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des Assyriens, des Babyloniens, des Mèdes et des Perses, des Macédoniens et des Grecs ‎(Ancient History of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Macedonians and Greeks; 1730-1738, 10 vols.) Volume 1. Arabic title: Al-tawārīkh al-qadīma (Ancient Histories).

            Translated from the Greek version of Alexandros Kangellarios, Palaiá istoría tōn Aigyptíōn, Karchīdoníōn, Assyríōn, Vavylōníōn, Mīdōn, Persṓn, Makedónōn, kai Ellīnōn, eis tómous déka kai ex diīrīménī (Venice: Pará Antōníō tō Vórtoli, 1750). Translated by ʿĪsā Petro and ʿAbd al-Masīḥ al-Ūrushalīmī from 1808 (BNF no. 1564). It is unclear how much was translated. Extant mss cover the first volume, on the Ancient Egyptians and Carthaginians, and the later section on Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great. Petro told the missionary Jowett in 1823 that he had translated the whole work, over six years; he had with him in Jerusalem (1823) only ‘the first rough translation, containing the History of Egypt and Carthage’ (Jowett, Christian Researches, 220).

 

Copies: 1. Vol 1. Bibliothèque Nationale de France: ms Arabe 1564. Incomplete, ends with the 3^rd Punic War. From the collection of Asselin de Cherville. Gallica.

            2. Books 14 and 15. Taʾrīkh Fīlīb al-thānī al-maqadūnī wa l-Iskandar al-akbar (History of Philip the Second of Macedon and Alexander the Great. (Corresponds to vol. 6 of French first edition). Dated 23 November 1309 [for 1809?].

Copies: Berlin State Library. Ms. or. quart. 1042. Catalogue.

Catalogue:

 

{Not digitised. The catalogue gives a reasonable amount of info, incipit, ch headings, Biblical citations in margin. Ch headings allow it to be identified as the relevant parts of Rollin (see e.g. ToC – apparently these two books were v6 of the hist ancienne in 1775). At the end (as in Rollin) there is a section from Bossuet on Persia, Greece and Macedonia.}

 

 

            A. 6. Abū Bakr, Aḥādīth Abī Bakr (Tales of Abu Bakr). Apparently Arabic tales translated into French, then into Italian, then into Greek, and from Greek back into Arabic. The immediate source was Ampoumpekēr (Abū Bakr), Nea chalima : ētoi mythologikon arabikon periechon diēgēseis, kai symbekēkota lian perierga kai hōraia by, translated from the Italian by Polyzōēs Lampanitziōtēs (4 vols., Vienna, 1791-4). Münchener DigitalisierungsZentrum, Volume 1. Translated by ʿĪsā Petro in Damietta, 1813. (Maʿlūf, “ʿĪsā Bitrū,” 3: 556; Asselin, Mines de l’Orient v3 (1813): 273).

Copies: Second volume only, Library of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem: no. 157. (Koikylidēs no. 157). Digitised from microfilm by the Library of Congress.

 

(Cf. ref by Asselin to ‘des Fables et quelques Anecdotes’: Mines v3 (1813): 273.)

(Check catalogue listing: https://www.loc.gov/item/52060045)

 

 

            A. 7. Voltaire (under the pseudonym Joseph Bourdillon), Essai historique et critique sur les dissensions des Églises de Pologne (Historical and Critical Essay on the Dissensions of the Churches of Poland. Paris, 1767). Google Books. Arabic title: Khulāṣat al-qaḍāyā al-tārīkhiyya wa-l-mushājarāt al-wāqiʿa fī kanāʾis Būlūniyā (Summary of the historical issue and the current controversies in the churches of Poland).

            Translated by Bāsīlī Fakhr ad two of his cousins, the Priest ʿAbd-al-Masīḥ Fakhr and Ḥannā Mīkhaʾīl Fakhr, probably before February 1809 (when it is referred to in a letter by Seetzen, Mines de l’Orient v1 (1809): 123). The source was the Greek translation, by Eugenios Voulgaris, Perì tō̂n dichonoíōn tō̂n ʼen taîs ʼekklīsíais tī̂s Polonías dokímion historikòn kaì kritikòn : ek tī̂s Gallikis ʼeis tī̀n koi, otéran tō̂n kath’hīmas Hellī́nōn diálektonn metafrasthen metà kaì sīmeiōmátōn tinō̂n historikō̂n kaì kritikō̂n oîs en télei proseté́thī kaì Skedísma perì tī̂s anexithrīskeías, printed anonymously at Leipzig in 1768. Anemi Digital Library. This contained extensive historical and critical notes by Voulgaris and his essay on religious toleration (Henderson, Revival, pp. 69-70), also translated into Arabic.

Copies: Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Damascus, no. 187. From the collection of Patriarch Ghrīghūriyūs Ḥaddād. (Jubāra no. 187; cf. Cheikho 160). HMML: MARI 00187.

 

(Cf. ref by Seetzen, letter to Hammer 4 Feb 1809, to a writing of Voltaire’s, mit der Widerlegung eines griechischen Gelehrten: Mines de l’Orient v1 (1809): 123.)

 

            A. 8. Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Lalande, Abrégé d’astronomie (1774. Condensed Astronomy). Google Books. Arabic title: al- Mukhtasar fi ʿ ilm al- falak.

            Referred to by Asselin (“Lettre,” 114-115) and Mishāqa (Jawāb, 62), who gives the Arabic title asʿIlm al-hayʾa li-Dīlāland al-Faransāwī (The Science of Astronomy, by de Lalande the Frenchman).

Translated from the Italian, probably Compendio di astronomia, ed. Vincenzo Chiminello (Padua: Tommaso Bettinelli, 1796). Google Books. Translation made by Fakhr, Petro and Giovanni Lavagetti. See Stolz, Lighthouse and the Observatory, 151-3.

 

            Copies: 1 BnF

Vol. 1: BnF ms Arabe 2554, dated January 1808. Gallica.

Vol. 2: BnF ms Arabe 2555, dated July 1808. Gallica.

 

Copy attested but not now findable:

3. Copy owned by Buṭrus ʿAnḥūrī, 1810s. (Mishāqa, Jawāb, 62).

 

(also mentioned in Meryon, Travels of Lady Hester Stanhope, 1: 179.)

 

 

A. 9. Rigas Velestinlis, Phusikēs Apanthisma (Anthology of Physics. Vienna: Trattner, 1790). ECHO [website currently down]. On its sources, see Theodossiou, “Rigas Velestinlis and Astronomy,” 74; Kitromilides, Enlightenment and Revolution, 202-204.        Arabic title: Zubad al-tabi‘iyyat. Translated by ‘Isa Petro from the Greek in Damietta, 1811.

Copies:

1. AUB MS 502:U82A:c.1. Catalogue.

Copied by Brother Fortunatius Jarrad in Dayr al-Mukhallis in 1836. Marginal notes by Butrus ‘Anhuri. Some torn pages, one page replaced by handwritten page.

2. National Library of Israel, ms. AP Ar. 116. Copied in 1875 by Anthony Yanni the Orthodox. Digitised.

 

Copies not now findable:

1. Copy owned by Buṭrus ʿAnḥūrī, 1810s. Reference to this is by Mishāqa (Jawāb, 62), who gives the title: ʿIlm al-ṭabīʿiyyāt li-l-Muʿallim Rīghā al-Balāstanlī (The Science of Physics, by the Teacher Riga al-Balastanli). ‘Anhuri seems to have had the AUB copy later, after 1836, and annotated it.

 

 

A. 10 Thomas Salmon, Modern History, Or, The Present State of All Nations (London: James Crokatt, 1725-?): section on China. Wellcome Collection (1744 edition). Arabic title: Tarikh Mamlakat al-Sin.

            Trans. ‘Isa Petro, 1807, probably from the Greek: [Thomas Salmon], trans. Georgios Konstantinou [of Zagora], ‘syndromē kai analōmasi’ by Polyzoes Lampanitziotes,  Historia tou vasileiou tēs Kinas : hē hopoia perigraphei to megethos toutou tou vasileiou kata tēn parousan katastasin, tas eparchias autou, tas politeias kai kastrē, ta ēthē, tous nomous, tas pragmateias, ta strateumata … kai ei ti allo periergon kai axiologon, hōs en tō pinaki phainetai (Enetiēsi [Venice] : Para A[n]tōniō tō Tzatta, 1763.)

The Greek:

https://www.worldcat.org/title/31727519?oclcNum=31727519

 

Copies: 1. Princeton, Yehuda mss, no. 5271 (alt. no. 2326). Catalogue.

 

 

A.11. Chateaubriand, Atala, ou les amours de deux savages dans le désert

(1801). Google Books.

Translated by ‘Isa Petro in Damietta, 1812.

Copies: BnF ms Arabe 3680. Gallica.

 

A.12. Fables of Aesop. Arabic title: Qatf amthal Isubus al-mufida.

Translated by ‘Isa Petro in Damietta. Undated.

Copies:

1. BnF: ms Arabe 3464 (old côte: supplément arabe 1644).  Gallica.

(Cf. Asselin, ‘des Fables et quelques Anecdotes’: Mines v3 (1813): 273.)

2. Cambridge University Library ms. 1478 (add. 280²). ‘A collection of 144 Aesop’s fables translated into Arabic’. Catalogue. Contains extensive marginalia, apparently versions of the main text in more literary Arabic.

 

[See E. G. Browne, A Hand-list of the Muhammadann Manuscripts, Including All Those Written in the Arabic Character, Preserved in the Library of the University of Cambridge, 332. This says it’s undated.]

 

B. No extant mss but more than one reference

 

B.1. A work on the duties of the priest and the deacon. Author and title unknown.

            Described by Maʿlūf as follows: ‘Kitāb yashtamil ʿalā ta’līm al-kahanna wa-l-shammāsa fī kayfiyyat mā yajib ʿalā al-kāhin wa-l-shammās wa-irshādihimā ʿalā mā yukhīḍ bi-khidmatihimā al-muqaddasa  wa-istiʿdādihimā al-sābiq li-ajl al-khidma al-sharīfa wa-l-qudās al-ilāhī. Wa-kayfa yanbaghī la-humā an yudabbarā muqāwimat al-hawādith al-fujāʾiyya wa-l-aʿrāḍ wa-l-mashākil al-nātija fī hādhihi al-khidma al-ilāhiyya al-sharīfa.’ ‘A book containing the teaching of priesthood and deaconry, on how to perform the duties of the priest and the deacon, directing them to what concerns their holy duties and preparing them beforehand for holy service and divine Mass. And how they should resist the sudden accidents, contingencies and troubles that arise in this holy and divine service.’

            Translated from ‘al-lugha al-slāviyya (al-rūsiyya aw al-saqlabiyya)’, ‘Slavonic (Russian or Slavic)’, into Greek by Callinicos, Patriarch of Constantinople, and thence into Arabic by ʿĪsā Petro, at the order of Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria.

Copy in the library of Jirjis Efendī Ḥannā al-Khūrī Siksik (the son of the copyist) in Jerusalem, examined (1911) by I. I. Maʿlūf. The copy was made by Yūḥanna al-Khūrī Jirjis al-Qudsī from a copy in the hand of ʿĪsā Petro. (Maʿlūf, “ʿĪsā Bitrū,” 3: 556).

[Was this translation actually made at Damietta? The copy Ma’luf saw was in Jerusalem – perhaps Petro did it in Jerusalem after his return there? Perhaps on Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria: Asselin’s 1813 letter says: At the solicitation of our mutual friend the Greek patriarch he tried to translate B Martin, but cdn’t render the technical terms so gave it up.]

 

 

B. 2. Constantin-François Volney, Les Ruines, ou méditations sur les révolutions des empires. Gallica.

            This was Volney’s Ruines, not his Voyage en Syrie et en Égypte as was suggested in Hill, ‘The First Arabic Translations’. (See Mishāqa, Jawāb, 65; Philipp, Syrians in Egypt, 69). References from contemporary travellers: Firmin-Didot, Notes d’un voyage…, 208; Miscellanea Ægyptiaca 1842, p. 36; Meryon, Travels of Lady Hester Stanhope, 1: 179. The last one suggests the translation was made before May 1812, when Meryon left Damietta. Translation probably made from the Italian by Basili Fakhr and Giovanni Lavagitti/Lavagetti, most likely from the Milan edition of Year 9 of the Republic (1800-/1), Le rovine, ossia, Meditazione sulle rivoluzioni degl’imperj, trans. Giacinto Barrère, Milan: Tipografia Milanese.

No extant copies. Copy known to have been made for Mikha’il Surur of Damietta, and compared to original by Mikha’il Mishaqa.

 

 

            C. Works to which a single reference can be found; may be doubtful

 

            C. 1. Chrysanthos Notaras, Eisagogē eis ta Geōgraphika, kai Sphairika (Introduction to Geography and the Globe. Paris, 1716 and Venice: Ant. Bortolis, 1718). Onassis Library.

            The sole reference is by Asselin (“Lettre,” 114-115): ‘Introduction a l’étude de la Géographie et du Globe’ by Chrysanthos Notar. Notaras (c. 1663-1731) was a Patriarch of Jerusalem. (Kraft, “Chrysanthos Notaras.”)

Greek here:

On the Greek, see Livieratos et al, and Rovithis (Zotero). It contained a lot of astronomy as well as a map of the world, and argued for the Ptolemaic against the Copernican system.

 

            C.2. Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Lalande, Histoire céleste française (French Celestial History. Paris, 1801).

            Referred to by Mishāqa (Jawāb, 62) as: Dīlāland taqwīm al-kawākib (De Lalande, Star Calendar). Of Lalande’s works, it seems most likely to be the Histoire céleste, an astrometric star catalogue listing the locations and apparent magnitudes of 47, 390 stars.

            Copies:

1. Copy owned by Buṭrus ʿAnḥūrī, 1810s. (Mishāqa, Jawāb, 62).

 

            C. 3. Abbé Joseph-Guillaume Clémence, L’authenticité des livres tant du Nouveau que de l’Ancien Testament, démontrée, et leur véridicité défendue, ou Réfutation de la Bible enfin expliquée de Vxxxx [Voltaire] (The Authenticity of the New and Old Testaments demonstrated, and their veracity defended, or, Refutation of the Bible Finally Explained by Vxxxx [Voltaire]. Paris, 1782).

            The sole reference to this is from the missionary William Jowett: ‘Another work which Ysa Petros translated was an answer to various infidel objections by Voltaire: I have not heard that any part of the works of Voltaire was ever translated into Arabic ; so that a refutation of his opinions, in that language, might seem premature….’ (Jowett, Christian Researches, 222-3). If this work existed it was probably a translation of Clémence’s work, via the Greek translation of Nikēphoros Theotokēs, Apodeixis tou kyrous tōn tēs Neas kai Palaias Diathēkēs vivliōn, kai tēs en autois alētheias hyperaspisis ē anaskeuē tēs tou Voltairou Vivlou, tēs kaloumenēs teleutaion diermēneutheisēs Diathēkēs, ek tēs Gallōn phōnēs, metaphrastheisa, hēper prosetethēsan kai tines sēmeiōseis (published anonymously, Vienna, 1794). This translation bore a preface by Theotokēs (1731-1800), attacking Voltaire strongly. (Henderson, Revival, 76-77).

 

C.4. Samuel-Auguste-André-David Tissot, Avis au peuple sur sa santé (1761). Reference in Meryon, Travels of Lady Hester Stanhope, 1: 179.

 

 

D: other, less firm references:

 

An Arabic-French dictionary; and plans to translate Rousseau’s Contract social and the Code Napoleon. Seetzen, Mines v1 (1809): 123. (Asselin denied the Rousseau ref and also Voltaire in his letter: but we know the Voltaire was translated.)

 

 

Recent secondary literature on the Damietta Circle:

 

Peter Hill, ‘The First Arabic Translations of Enlightenment Literature: The Damietta Circle of the 1800s and 1810s’, Intellectual History Review 24, no. 2 (2015): 209–33. Study of the circle and translations in general. Some details now updated and corrected in the present list and in Prophet of Reason.

 

Peter Hill, Prophet of Reason: Science, Religion and the Origins of the Modern Middle East (London: Oneworld Publications, 2024). Contains a study of the translation circle and its wider milieu.

 

Peter Hill, ‘The Arabic Adventures of Télémaque: Trajectory of a Global Enlightenment Text in the Nahḍah’, Journal of Arabic Literature 49, no. 3 (2018): 171–203. Includes a study of the Fakhr-Lavagitti translation of Fénelon, Aventures de Télémaque.

 

Boris Liebrenz, Arab Traders in Their Own Words: Merchant Letters from the Eastern Mediterranean Around 1800 (Leiden: Brill, 2022), https://brill.com/display/title/61502. Edition, translation and study of correspondence of members of the translation circle.

 

Stefan Reichmuth, ‘Mündlicher und literarischer Wissentransfer in Ägypten im späten 18. / frühen 19. Jahrhundert – Arabische Gelehrte und ihr Zugang zu europäischer Naturwissenschaft’, in Buchkultur im Nahen Osten des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts, ed. Tobias Heinzelmann and Henning Sievert (Bern: Peter Lang, 2010), 27–52. Study of the illustrations volume of Martin, Philosophical Grammar, trans. Petro.

 

Daniel A. Stolz, The Lighthouse and the Observatory: Islam, Science, and Empire in Late Ottoman Egypt, Science in History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018). Includes study of the translation of Lalande, Abrégé d’astronomie.